Abul Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail al-Buzjani was born in Buzjan, Nishapur in 940 C.E. He flourished as a great mathematician and astronomer at Baghdad and died in 997 / 998 C.E. He learnt mathematics in Baghdad.
In 959 C.E. he migrated to Iraq and lived there till his death. Abul Wafa's main contribution lies in several branches of mathematics, especially geometry and trigonometry. In geometry his contribution comprises solution of geometrical problems with opening of the compass; construction of a square equivalent to other squares; regular polyhedra; construction of regular hectagon taking for its side half the side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle and constructions of parabola by points.
Abul Wafa's contribution to the development of trigonometry was extensive. He was the first to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles. He developed a new method of constructing sine tables, the value of sin 30 being correct to the eighth decimal place.
In addition, he made a special study of the tangent and calculated a table of tangents. He introduced the secant and cosecant for the first time, knew the relations between the trigonometric lines, which are now used to define them, and undertook extensive studies on conics. Apart from being a mathematician, Abul Wafa also contributed to astronomy. In this field he discussed different movements of the moon, and discovered 'variation'. He was also one of the last Arabic translators and commentators of Greek works.
He wrote a large number of books on mathematics and other subjects, most of which have been lost or exist in modified forms. His contribution includes Kitab Ilm al-Hisab, a practical book of arithmetic, al-Kitab al-Kamil (the Complete Book), Kitab al-Handsa (Applied Geometry). Apart from this, he wrote rich commentaries on Euclid, Diophantos and al-Khawarizmi, but all of these have been lost. His books now extant include Kitab Ilm al-Hisab, Kitab al-Handsa and Kitab al-Kamil.
His astronomical knowledge on the movements of the moon has been criticized in that, in the case of 'variation' the third inequality of the moon as he discussed was the second part of the 'evection'. But, according to Sedat, what he discovered was the same that was discovered by Tycho Brache six centuries later. Nonetheless, his contribution to trigonometry was extremely significant in that he developed the knowledge on the tangent and introduced the secant and cosecant for the first time; in fact a sizeable part of today's trigonometry can be traced back to him.
Monday, May 17, 2010
Abdul Rahman Al-Sufi
Abdul Rahman Al-Sufi (903 - 986 C.E.), known in the West as Azophi, was one of the two most outstanding practical astronomers of the Middle Ages. Al-Sufi was the first astronomer to describe the 'nebulosity' of the nebula in Andromeda in his book of constellations (atlas of heavens). He named the southern group of stars al-Baqar al-Abyad or the 'White Bull' after receiving reports from Arab navigators in the Malay Archipelago. We now know this group of stars as Nubecula Major (the greater Magellanic Cloud).
Al-Sufi prepared charts of the heavens from his own observations and carefully adjudged their magnitudes. His book 'Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar' was a masterpiece on stellar astronomy. It is available in the original Arabic and in French translation by Schjellerup. Kitab al-Kawatib is considered important even now for the study of proper motions and long period variables. In it he included theta Eridani among the 13 brightest stars then known. Ulugh Beg, the grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), in 1437 found it to be of the first magnitude in his list of fixed stars. Edmond Halley in his voyage to St. Helena at the beginning of the Eighteenth century saw it as a star of the third magnitude.
Al-Sufi stated that the color of the Sirms (alpha canes majoris) does not change, which is confirmed by later observations. Ironically, Seneca reported to have observed it red in Rome, Ptolemy in Alexandria reddish, and Schmidt (1841) in Athens had observed it white after finding yellow for a few days. It is presumed that these contradicting observations must have been due to local variations of weather. Al-Sufi observed the color of Algol, beta Persei, (Arabic Al-Ghoul), to be ruddy.
Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) mention a surface feature of the moon after Al-Sufi (Azophi). It is a mountainous ring twenty-six miles in diameter in the ninth section of the lunar map. Al-Sufi's influence in astronomy was substantial. It is reported that the Buwayh Sultan, Sharaf-al-Dawlah, became interested in astronomy because of Al-Sufi's influence.
Al-Sufi prepared charts of the heavens from his own observations and carefully adjudged their magnitudes. His book 'Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar' was a masterpiece on stellar astronomy. It is available in the original Arabic and in French translation by Schjellerup. Kitab al-Kawatib is considered important even now for the study of proper motions and long period variables. In it he included theta Eridani among the 13 brightest stars then known. Ulugh Beg, the grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), in 1437 found it to be of the first magnitude in his list of fixed stars. Edmond Halley in his voyage to St. Helena at the beginning of the Eighteenth century saw it as a star of the third magnitude.
Al-Sufi stated that the color of the Sirms (alpha canes majoris) does not change, which is confirmed by later observations. Ironically, Seneca reported to have observed it red in Rome, Ptolemy in Alexandria reddish, and Schmidt (1841) in Athens had observed it white after finding yellow for a few days. It is presumed that these contradicting observations must have been due to local variations of weather. Al-Sufi observed the color of Algol, beta Persei, (Arabic Al-Ghoul), to be ruddy.
Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) mention a surface feature of the moon after Al-Sufi (Azophi). It is a mountainous ring twenty-six miles in diameter in the ninth section of the lunar map. Al-Sufi's influence in astronomy was substantial. It is reported that the Buwayh Sultan, Sharaf-al-Dawlah, became interested in astronomy because of Al-Sufi's influence.
Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakariya Ar-Razi
The well-known writer George Sarton says in his Introduction to the History of Science that:
Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages
And the Encyclopedia of Islam remarks that:
Rhazes remained up to the 17th century
the undisputable authority on medicine
The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), May 1970, pays tribute to him by stating:
" His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject "
Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi was born at Ray near modern Tehran in 251 A.H. (864 C.E.) It is said that early in his life al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions. Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. It was the field of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it. Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the Adhud-Daulah.
An interesting episode of Al-Razi's remarkable method of choosing the right spot for the Baghdad main hospital is described as follows. When Adhud Daulah asked Ar-Razi to build a hospital, he had pieces of fresh meat placed at various parts of the city of Baghdad. Some time later, he checked each piece to find out which one was less rotten than the others, and he chose the spot of the least rotten pieces of' meat a site for the hospital.
Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology.
In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Some of his works in medicine, e.g., Kitab al-Mansoori, AI-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cures through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side effects.
Ar-Razi was the first person to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic Al-Kuhl) for medical purposes. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia. Ar-Razi was the first to give an account of the operation for the extraction of a cataract and also the first scientist to discuss the pupillary reaction or the widening and narrowing of the pupil of the eye. He explained that the reaction was due to the presence of small muscles which act according to the intensity of light. The current understanding on this subject confirms his work.
The greatest medical work of Ar-Razi, and perhaps the most extensive ever written by a medical man, is al Hawi, i.e., the "Comprehensive Book," which includes indeed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their entirety. Throughout his life Ar-Razi must have collected extracts from all the books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his medical experience into an enormous twenty volume medical encyclopedia.
Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed till then. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charles I of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj Ibn Salim (Farragut) in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1488 onwards. Al-Hawi was known as 'Continens' in its Latin translation. "By 1542 there had appeared five editions of this vast and costly work, besides many more of various parts of it. Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable." (The Legacy of Islam, pp. 323-5). Another scholar points out that Ar-Razi's "al-Hawi was one of the nine volumes constituting the whole library of the Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1395." (Durant; Haider, Bammate, 29).
Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin (known by the title 'Liber Almansoris') in the 1480s in Milan, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes have been published separately into German and French. The ninth volume of the translation made by Gerard of Cremona the "Norms Al-Mansuri," was a popular text in Europe until the sixteenth century (Durant, p247). Ar-Razi in Al-Mansoori devoted a whole chapter on anatomy. In it he has presented a detailed description of the various organs of the human body, and sensory and motor parts. He has also given elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.
His al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chickenpox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution. It was first translated into Latin in 1565 and later into several European languages and went into forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was translated into English by William A. Greenhill, London, 1848. Through his treatise Razi became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox.
Ar-Razi gave many valuable pieces of advice to practicing physicians: "A physician should not forget to ask his patient all sorts of questions pertaining to the possible causes of his illness, both internal and external .... If a physician can treat a patient through nutrition rather than medicine he has done the best thing. A physician should always try to convince his patient of improvement and hope in the effectiveness of treatment, for the psychological state of the patient has a great effect on his physical condition. He used to advise his patients thus: "Whoever seeks treatment with too many physicians might suffer the risk of the faults of each one of them. A patient should restrict consultation to one trustworthy physician."
Ar-Razi also compounded medicines and took keen interest in experimental and theoretical sciences. It is conjectured that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber).
He has discussed several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language.
One of his books Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum. He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulphuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.
His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum is outstanding.
Ar-Razi was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than two hundred outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and twenty-one on Alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his other books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Maqalah fi al-Hasat Fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitah-al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages.
About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, and Rampur (India). His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular. Like other great scholars of Islamic history, Razi's erudition was all-embracing and his scientific work remarkable. The foregoing description represents only a part of the great legacy left by Ar-Razi. He died in 930 C.E. Razi's portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages
And the Encyclopedia of Islam remarks that:
Rhazes remained up to the 17th century
the undisputable authority on medicine
The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), May 1970, pays tribute to him by stating:
" His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject "
Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi was born at Ray near modern Tehran in 251 A.H. (864 C.E.) It is said that early in his life al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions. Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. It was the field of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it. Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the Adhud-Daulah.
An interesting episode of Al-Razi's remarkable method of choosing the right spot for the Baghdad main hospital is described as follows. When Adhud Daulah asked Ar-Razi to build a hospital, he had pieces of fresh meat placed at various parts of the city of Baghdad. Some time later, he checked each piece to find out which one was less rotten than the others, and he chose the spot of the least rotten pieces of' meat a site for the hospital.
Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology.
In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Some of his works in medicine, e.g., Kitab al-Mansoori, AI-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cures through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side effects.
Ar-Razi was the first person to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic Al-Kuhl) for medical purposes. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia. Ar-Razi was the first to give an account of the operation for the extraction of a cataract and also the first scientist to discuss the pupillary reaction or the widening and narrowing of the pupil of the eye. He explained that the reaction was due to the presence of small muscles which act according to the intensity of light. The current understanding on this subject confirms his work.
The greatest medical work of Ar-Razi, and perhaps the most extensive ever written by a medical man, is al Hawi, i.e., the "Comprehensive Book," which includes indeed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their entirety. Throughout his life Ar-Razi must have collected extracts from all the books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his medical experience into an enormous twenty volume medical encyclopedia.
Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed till then. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charles I of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj Ibn Salim (Farragut) in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1488 onwards. Al-Hawi was known as 'Continens' in its Latin translation. "By 1542 there had appeared five editions of this vast and costly work, besides many more of various parts of it. Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable." (The Legacy of Islam, pp. 323-5). Another scholar points out that Ar-Razi's "al-Hawi was one of the nine volumes constituting the whole library of the Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1395." (Durant; Haider, Bammate, 29).
Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin (known by the title 'Liber Almansoris') in the 1480s in Milan, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes have been published separately into German and French. The ninth volume of the translation made by Gerard of Cremona the "Norms Al-Mansuri," was a popular text in Europe until the sixteenth century (Durant, p247). Ar-Razi in Al-Mansoori devoted a whole chapter on anatomy. In it he has presented a detailed description of the various organs of the human body, and sensory and motor parts. He has also given elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.
His al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chickenpox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution. It was first translated into Latin in 1565 and later into several European languages and went into forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was translated into English by William A. Greenhill, London, 1848. Through his treatise Razi became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox.
Ar-Razi gave many valuable pieces of advice to practicing physicians: "A physician should not forget to ask his patient all sorts of questions pertaining to the possible causes of his illness, both internal and external .... If a physician can treat a patient through nutrition rather than medicine he has done the best thing. A physician should always try to convince his patient of improvement and hope in the effectiveness of treatment, for the psychological state of the patient has a great effect on his physical condition. He used to advise his patients thus: "Whoever seeks treatment with too many physicians might suffer the risk of the faults of each one of them. A patient should restrict consultation to one trustworthy physician."
Ar-Razi also compounded medicines and took keen interest in experimental and theoretical sciences. It is conjectured that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber).
He has discussed several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language.
One of his books Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum. He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulphuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.
His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum is outstanding.
Ar-Razi was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than two hundred outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and twenty-one on Alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his other books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Maqalah fi al-Hasat Fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitah-al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages.
About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, and Rampur (India). His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular. Like other great scholars of Islamic history, Razi's erudition was all-embracing and his scientific work remarkable. The foregoing description represents only a part of the great legacy left by Ar-Razi. He died in 930 C.E. Razi's portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
Abu Abdullah Al-Battani
Al-Battani, known in the West as Albategnius, was a famous astronomer and mathematician. He has been recognized as the greatest astronomer of his time and one of the greatest of' the Middle Ages. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan al-Battani was born around 858 C.E. in or near Battan, a state of Harran. He belonged to the princely Sa'bi family of Harran and he was a Muslim.
Al-Battani was first educated by his father Jabir Ibn Sin'an al-Battani, who was also a well-known scientist. He then moved to Raqqa, situated on the bank of the Euphrates, where he received advanced education in sciences. At the end of the ninth century, he migrated to Samarra, where he worked until his death in 929 C.E.
Al-Battani made his observations and studies in Al-Raqqah from 877 to 929 and made many important discoveries in astronomy. According to Prof. Phillip Hitti:
" He made several emendations to Ptolemy and rectified the calculations for the orbits of the moon and certain planets. He proved the possibility of annular eclipses of the sun and determined with greater accuracy the obliquity of the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the ecliptic, the length of the tropical year and the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the sun "
His remarkably accurate calculation of the solar year as 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds is very close to the latest estimates. He revised orbits of the Moon and the planets and proposed a new and very ingenious theory to determine the conditions of visibility of the new moon. Dunthorne, in 1749, used al-Battani's excellent observations of the lunar and solar eclipses to determine the acceleration of motion of the moon.
Al-Battani also provided very ingenuous solutions for some problems of spherical trigonometry using the methods of orthographic projection. It was from a perusal of Al-Battani's work on apparent motion of fixed stars that Hevilius discovered the circular variation of the moon.
Al-Battani's greatest fame came in Mathematics with the use of trigonometric ratios as we use them today. He was the first to replace the use of Greek chords by Sines, with a clear understanding of their superiority. He also developed the concept of Cotangent and furnished their tables in degrees.
Joseph Hell remarked that:
" In the domain of trigonometry the theory of Sine, Cosine and tangent is an heirloom of the Arabs. The brilliant epochs of Peurbach, of Regiomontanus, of Copernicus, cannot be recalled without reminding us of the fundamental and preparatory labor of the Arab Mathematicians "
Al-Battani wrote many books on astronomy and trigonometry. His most famous book was an astronomical treatise with tables, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century and is known by the title 'De Scienta Stellarum - De Numeris Stellarum et motibus.' The third chapter of his book on Astronomy is devoted to Trigonometry. An old translation of this book is available at the Vatican. His another book al-Zij was published by C.A. Nullino in Rome in 1899. His treatise on astronomy was extremely influential in Europe until the Renaissance and was translated in several languages.
Al-Battani's original discoveries both in Astronomy and Trigonometry were of great consequence to the development of sciences, particularly in the Middle Ages. Copernicus in his book 'De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium' expresses his indebtedness to Al-Battani.
Al-Battani was first educated by his father Jabir Ibn Sin'an al-Battani, who was also a well-known scientist. He then moved to Raqqa, situated on the bank of the Euphrates, where he received advanced education in sciences. At the end of the ninth century, he migrated to Samarra, where he worked until his death in 929 C.E.
Al-Battani made his observations and studies in Al-Raqqah from 877 to 929 and made many important discoveries in astronomy. According to Prof. Phillip Hitti:
" He made several emendations to Ptolemy and rectified the calculations for the orbits of the moon and certain planets. He proved the possibility of annular eclipses of the sun and determined with greater accuracy the obliquity of the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the ecliptic, the length of the tropical year and the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the sun "
His remarkably accurate calculation of the solar year as 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds is very close to the latest estimates. He revised orbits of the Moon and the planets and proposed a new and very ingenious theory to determine the conditions of visibility of the new moon. Dunthorne, in 1749, used al-Battani's excellent observations of the lunar and solar eclipses to determine the acceleration of motion of the moon.
Al-Battani also provided very ingenuous solutions for some problems of spherical trigonometry using the methods of orthographic projection. It was from a perusal of Al-Battani's work on apparent motion of fixed stars that Hevilius discovered the circular variation of the moon.
Al-Battani's greatest fame came in Mathematics with the use of trigonometric ratios as we use them today. He was the first to replace the use of Greek chords by Sines, with a clear understanding of their superiority. He also developed the concept of Cotangent and furnished their tables in degrees.
Joseph Hell remarked that:
" In the domain of trigonometry the theory of Sine, Cosine and tangent is an heirloom of the Arabs. The brilliant epochs of Peurbach, of Regiomontanus, of Copernicus, cannot be recalled without reminding us of the fundamental and preparatory labor of the Arab Mathematicians "
Al-Battani wrote many books on astronomy and trigonometry. His most famous book was an astronomical treatise with tables, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century and is known by the title 'De Scienta Stellarum - De Numeris Stellarum et motibus.' The third chapter of his book on Astronomy is devoted to Trigonometry. An old translation of this book is available at the Vatican. His another book al-Zij was published by C.A. Nullino in Rome in 1899. His treatise on astronomy was extremely influential in Europe until the Renaissance and was translated in several languages.
Al-Battani's original discoveries both in Astronomy and Trigonometry were of great consequence to the development of sciences, particularly in the Middle Ages. Copernicus in his book 'De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium' expresses his indebtedness to Al-Battani.
Thabit Ibn Qurrah
Thabit ibn Qurrah, known in the West as Thebit, is known for his work on mechanics, astronomy, pure mathematics and geometry. Thabit Ibn Qurrah Ibn Marwan al-Harrani was born in 836 C.E. at Harran (present Turkey) and died in Baghdad in 901 C.E. He joined the scientific team of the great Muslim mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa Ibn Shakir at Baghdad, which was established by the Abbasid Caliphs.
Thabit was a pioneer in extending the concept of traditional geometry to geometrical algebra and proposed theories that led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry, spherical trigonometry, integral calculus and real numbers. He used arithmetic terminology to study several aspects of conic sections (parabola and ellipse). His algorithm for computing the surface area and volume of solids is in fact what we came to know later as the integral calculus.
Thabit's original work on Mechanics and Physics involves examining conditions of equilibrium of bodies, beams and levers. Some historians have recognized him as the Founder of Statics. He was among the early critics of Ptolemaic views on astronomy. He also criticized several theorems of Euclid's elements and proposed important improvements. Thabit added the ninth sphere to Ptolemic astronomy. Some early investigators criticized his work on 'Trepidation of Equinoxes' and several centuries later Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) improved upon his work. Thabit analyzed several problems on the movements of sun and moon and wrote treatises on sundials.
Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) mention a surface feature of the moon after Thabit (Thebit). It is a prominent circular plain thirty miles in diameter in Section No. 8. The intrusion of a small circular plain has disfigured its circular wall. A small crater has thrust itself in on the eastern side of this plain. Thabit's books on mathematics, astronomy and medicine have survived. He translated many Greek and Syrian works on Science into Arabic while in the service of Khalifah Al-Mu'tadid.
Among his translations into Arabic are the Ptolemy's Almagest, Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Apollonius's book on conic sections, and some of Archimedes' works. In the Middle Ages, Gerard of Cremona translated some of his books into Latin.
Thabit left his legacy with sons (Ibrahim and Sinan), grandsons (Thabit and Ibrahim) and great grandson (Abu al-Faraj) who also contributed substantially to our knowledge of geometry, astronomy and medicine. His son Sinan conducted regular examination (certification) of medical practioners begining in 931 C.E. and awarded eight hundred certificates to medical doctors. Sinan also instituted traveling hospitals and inspected prisons to assure adequate health care.
Thabit was a pioneer in extending the concept of traditional geometry to geometrical algebra and proposed theories that led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry, spherical trigonometry, integral calculus and real numbers. He used arithmetic terminology to study several aspects of conic sections (parabola and ellipse). His algorithm for computing the surface area and volume of solids is in fact what we came to know later as the integral calculus.
Thabit's original work on Mechanics and Physics involves examining conditions of equilibrium of bodies, beams and levers. Some historians have recognized him as the Founder of Statics. He was among the early critics of Ptolemaic views on astronomy. He also criticized several theorems of Euclid's elements and proposed important improvements. Thabit added the ninth sphere to Ptolemic astronomy. Some early investigators criticized his work on 'Trepidation of Equinoxes' and several centuries later Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) improved upon his work. Thabit analyzed several problems on the movements of sun and moon and wrote treatises on sundials.
Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) mention a surface feature of the moon after Thabit (Thebit). It is a prominent circular plain thirty miles in diameter in Section No. 8. The intrusion of a small circular plain has disfigured its circular wall. A small crater has thrust itself in on the eastern side of this plain. Thabit's books on mathematics, astronomy and medicine have survived. He translated many Greek and Syrian works on Science into Arabic while in the service of Khalifah Al-Mu'tadid.
Among his translations into Arabic are the Ptolemy's Almagest, Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Apollonius's book on conic sections, and some of Archimedes' works. In the Middle Ages, Gerard of Cremona translated some of his books into Latin.
Thabit left his legacy with sons (Ibrahim and Sinan), grandsons (Thabit and Ibrahim) and great grandson (Abu al-Faraj) who also contributed substantially to our knowledge of geometry, astronomy and medicine. His son Sinan conducted regular examination (certification) of medical practioners begining in 931 C.E. and awarded eight hundred certificates to medical doctors. Sinan also instituted traveling hospitals and inspected prisons to assure adequate health care.
Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari
Al-Tabari was the teacher of the distinguished physician Zakariya al-Razi. Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabari was born in 838 C.E. He was also known as Abu al-Hasan. Al-Tabari is most famous for his world-renowned medical treatise 'Firdous al-Hikmat.' Besides the medical science, he was also an accomplished Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. He died in 870 C.E. Ali Ibn Rabban's parents belonged to the city of Marv (Tabristan). His father Sahl belonged to a respectable family and his compatriots called him as 'Rattan' a high title of respect meaning 'my leader.'
His father was a very successful and accomplished physician and was known for his work in the art of calligraphy. He was well learned in Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. His father wrote a scholarly commentary on Batlemus's book Al-Mijasti, expounding some of the finer points that were not understood well by previous translators.
Ali Al-Tabari received education in Medical sciences and calligraphy from his father Sahl. He attained competence in these fields at an early age. In addition, he also mastered Syriac and Greek languages.
Al-Tabari's world-renowned seven-volume treatise Firdous al-Hikmat is the first Medical encyclopedia that incorporates several branches of medical science. This work was translated and published for the first time in the twentieth century. Prior to this publication, only five of his original manuscripts were found in libraries of the West. Dr. M.Z. Siddiqui has recently edited all volumes of Firdous al-Hikmat. In the Preface, Dr. Siddiqui has provided very useful information regarding this encyclopedia and al-Tabari. Where necessary, he has added explanatory notes to facilitate understanding of this work. Firdous al-Hikmat was published later also in the Western Europe. The seven volumes contain the following:
Volume One: Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This volume discusses contemporary knowledge of medical science.
Volume Two: Elucidation of the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health, and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.
Volume Three: Discussion and prescription of diet for good health and prevention of diseases.
Volume Four: Discussion of all diseases from head to toe. This volume is most valuable of the seven volumes. It is the largest volume and is nearly half the size of the encyclopedia. Volume four is divided into twelve sections:
General causes relating to eruption of diseases
Diseases of the head and the brain
Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth
Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm)
Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs
Diseases of the abdomen
Diseases of the liver
Diseases of gallbladder and spleen
Intestinal diseases
Different kinds of fever
Miscellaneous diseases - includes a brief explanation of organs of the body
Examination of pulse and urine
Volume Five: Flavor, taste and color.
Volume Six: Drugs and Poison.
Volume Seven: Miscellaneous topics on health care. It includes a discussion of climate and astronomy, and a brief review of Indian medicine.
Al-Tabari wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic and also translated it into Syriac. He wrote two more works, Deen-e-Doulat and Hifz al-Shehhat. The Oxford University library has the latter manuscript.
His father was a very successful and accomplished physician and was known for his work in the art of calligraphy. He was well learned in Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. His father wrote a scholarly commentary on Batlemus's book Al-Mijasti, expounding some of the finer points that were not understood well by previous translators.
Ali Al-Tabari received education in Medical sciences and calligraphy from his father Sahl. He attained competence in these fields at an early age. In addition, he also mastered Syriac and Greek languages.
Al-Tabari's world-renowned seven-volume treatise Firdous al-Hikmat is the first Medical encyclopedia that incorporates several branches of medical science. This work was translated and published for the first time in the twentieth century. Prior to this publication, only five of his original manuscripts were found in libraries of the West. Dr. M.Z. Siddiqui has recently edited all volumes of Firdous al-Hikmat. In the Preface, Dr. Siddiqui has provided very useful information regarding this encyclopedia and al-Tabari. Where necessary, he has added explanatory notes to facilitate understanding of this work. Firdous al-Hikmat was published later also in the Western Europe. The seven volumes contain the following:
Volume One: Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This volume discusses contemporary knowledge of medical science.
Volume Two: Elucidation of the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health, and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.
Volume Three: Discussion and prescription of diet for good health and prevention of diseases.
Volume Four: Discussion of all diseases from head to toe. This volume is most valuable of the seven volumes. It is the largest volume and is nearly half the size of the encyclopedia. Volume four is divided into twelve sections:
General causes relating to eruption of diseases
Diseases of the head and the brain
Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth
Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm)
Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs
Diseases of the abdomen
Diseases of the liver
Diseases of gallbladder and spleen
Intestinal diseases
Different kinds of fever
Miscellaneous diseases - includes a brief explanation of organs of the body
Examination of pulse and urine
Volume Five: Flavor, taste and color.
Volume Six: Drugs and Poison.
Volume Seven: Miscellaneous topics on health care. It includes a discussion of climate and astronomy, and a brief review of Indian medicine.
Al-Tabari wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic and also translated it into Syriac. He wrote two more works, Deen-e-Doulat and Hifz al-Shehhat. The Oxford University library has the latter manuscript.
Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Kathir Al-Farghani
Abul Abbas Ahmad Ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani (C. 860 C.E.), born in Farghana, Transoxiana, was one of the most distinguished astronomers in the service of al-Mamun and his successors. He wrote "Elements of Astronomy" (Kitab fi al-Harakat al-Samawiya wa Jawami Ilm al-Nujum i.e. The Book on Celestial Motion and Thorough Science of the Stars), which was translated into Latin in the 12th century and exerted great influence upon European astronomy before Regiomontanus. He accepted Ptolemy's theory and value of the precession, but thought that it affected not only the stars but also the planets. He determined the diameter of the earth to be 6,500 miles, and found the greatest distances and also the diameters of the planets.
Al-Farghani's activities extended to engineering. According to Ibn Tughri Birdi, he supervised the construction of the Great Nilometer at al-Fustat (old Cairo). It was completed in 861, the year in which the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction, died. But engineering was not al-Farghani's forte, as transpires from the following story narrated by Ibn Abi Usaybi'a.
Al-Mutawakkil had entrusted the two sons of Musa Ibn Shakir, Muhammad and Ahmad, with supervising the digging of a canal named al-Ja'fari. They delegated the work to Al-Farghani, thus deliberately ignoring a better engineer, Sind Ibn Ali, whom, out of professional jealousy, they had caused to be sent to Baghdad, away from al- Mutawakkil's court in Samarra.
The canal was to run through the new city, al-Ja'fariyya, which al-Mutawakkil had built near Samarri on the Tigris and named after himseIt'. Al-Farghani committed a grave error, making the beginning of the canal deeper than the rest, so that not enough water would run through the length of' the canal except when the Tigris was high. News of this angered the Caliph, and the two brothers were saved from severe punishment only by the gracious willingness of Sind Ibn Ali to vouch for the correctness of al-Farghani's calculations, thus risking his own welfare and possibly his life. Al-Mutawakkil was murdered shortly before the error became apparent. The explanation given for Al-Farghani's mistake is that being a theoretician rather than a practical engineer, he never successfully completed a construction.
The Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim, written in 987, ascribes only two works to Al-Farghani: (1) "The Book of Chapters, a summary of the Almagest" (Kitab al-Fusul, Ikhtiyar al-Majisti) and (2) "Book on the Construction of Sun-dials" (Kitab'Amal al-Rukhamat).
The Jawami, or 'The Elements' as we shall call it, was Al-Farghani's best-known and most influential work. Abd al-Aziz al-Qabisi (d. 967) wrote a commentary on it, which is preserved in the Istanbul manuscript, Aya Sofya 4832, fols. 97v-114v. Two Latin translations followed in the 12th century. Jacob Anatoli produced a Hebrew translation of the book that served as a basis for a third Latin version, appearing in 1590, whereas Jacob Golius published a new Latin text together with the Arabic original in 1669. The influence of 'The Elements' on mediaeval Europe is clearly vindicated by the presence of innumerable Latin manuscripts in European libraries.
References to it by medieval writers are many, and there is no doubt that it was greatly responsible for spreading knowledge of Ptolemaic astronomy, at least until this role was taken over by Sacrobosco's Sphere. But even then, 'The Elements' of Al-Farghani continued to be used, and Sacrobosco's Sphere was evidently indebted to it. It was from 'The Elements' (in Gherard's translation) that Dame derived the astronomical knowledge displayed in the 'Vita nuova' and in the 'Convivio'.
Al-Farghani's activities extended to engineering. According to Ibn Tughri Birdi, he supervised the construction of the Great Nilometer at al-Fustat (old Cairo). It was completed in 861, the year in which the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction, died. But engineering was not al-Farghani's forte, as transpires from the following story narrated by Ibn Abi Usaybi'a.
Al-Mutawakkil had entrusted the two sons of Musa Ibn Shakir, Muhammad and Ahmad, with supervising the digging of a canal named al-Ja'fari. They delegated the work to Al-Farghani, thus deliberately ignoring a better engineer, Sind Ibn Ali, whom, out of professional jealousy, they had caused to be sent to Baghdad, away from al- Mutawakkil's court in Samarra.
The canal was to run through the new city, al-Ja'fariyya, which al-Mutawakkil had built near Samarri on the Tigris and named after himseIt'. Al-Farghani committed a grave error, making the beginning of the canal deeper than the rest, so that not enough water would run through the length of' the canal except when the Tigris was high. News of this angered the Caliph, and the two brothers were saved from severe punishment only by the gracious willingness of Sind Ibn Ali to vouch for the correctness of al-Farghani's calculations, thus risking his own welfare and possibly his life. Al-Mutawakkil was murdered shortly before the error became apparent. The explanation given for Al-Farghani's mistake is that being a theoretician rather than a practical engineer, he never successfully completed a construction.
The Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim, written in 987, ascribes only two works to Al-Farghani: (1) "The Book of Chapters, a summary of the Almagest" (Kitab al-Fusul, Ikhtiyar al-Majisti) and (2) "Book on the Construction of Sun-dials" (Kitab'Amal al-Rukhamat).
The Jawami, or 'The Elements' as we shall call it, was Al-Farghani's best-known and most influential work. Abd al-Aziz al-Qabisi (d. 967) wrote a commentary on it, which is preserved in the Istanbul manuscript, Aya Sofya 4832, fols. 97v-114v. Two Latin translations followed in the 12th century. Jacob Anatoli produced a Hebrew translation of the book that served as a basis for a third Latin version, appearing in 1590, whereas Jacob Golius published a new Latin text together with the Arabic original in 1669. The influence of 'The Elements' on mediaeval Europe is clearly vindicated by the presence of innumerable Latin manuscripts in European libraries.
References to it by medieval writers are many, and there is no doubt that it was greatly responsible for spreading knowledge of Ptolemaic astronomy, at least until this role was taken over by Sacrobosco's Sphere. But even then, 'The Elements' of Al-Farghani continued to be used, and Sacrobosco's Sphere was evidently indebted to it. It was from 'The Elements' (in Gherard's translation) that Dame derived the astronomical knowledge displayed in the 'Vita nuova' and in the 'Convivio'.
Abu Usman Amr Ibn Bakr Al-Basri Al-Jahiz
Abu Usman Amr Ibn Bakr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri al-Jahiz was born in Basra in 776 C.E. He studied in Basra, a major intellectual center, under several well known Islamic scholars. Al-Jahiz belonged to an average working class family. During his late teens, while continuing his study, he helped his father in the fish market. Recognizing his more productive talents, one day his mother presented him with a tray of paper notebooks suggesting that he earn his living by means of writing. This incident helped to launch what was to become an illustrious career that lasted more than sixty years.
Al-Jahiz's earliest writing on the 'Institution of the Caliphate' was well received at the court of Baghdad. Around 815 C.E., al-Jahiz moved to Baghdad, a city founded about fifteen years before his birth as the seat of Abbasi Khilafat and the capital of Islamic Empire (excluding Andalusia, i.e., Spain, Portugal and southern France). He continued to write on a variety of subjects and was well respected at Caliph's court. Although he was admired by court officials, he never worked for them nor held any official position. Al-Jahiz wrote more than two hundred works but only thirty are extant. His work included zoology, Arabic grammar, poetry, rhetoric and lexicography. He is considered as one of the few Muslim scientists who wrote on scientific and complex subjects for nonspecialists and common people. His writings contain many anecdotes regardless of the subject he is discussing to make his point and to bring out both sides of an argument. Some of his famous books are: The Book of Animals, The Art of Keeping One's Mouth Shut, Against Civil Servants, Arab Food, In Praise of Merchants, and Levity and Seriousness. On the style of writing, al-Jahiz advanced that:
" The best style is the clearest, the style that needs no explication and no notes, that conforms to the subject expressed, neither exceeding it nor falling short "
His most famous book 'Kitab al-Hayawan' (Book of Animals) is an encyclopedia of seven large volumes. He was rewarded with 5,000 gold dinars from the court official to whom he dedicated the Book of Animals. Kitab al-Hayawan contains an amazing array of scientific information that was not to be fully developed until the first half of the twentieth century.
Al-Jahiz discusses his observation in detail on the social organization of ants, animal communication and psychology, and the effects of diet and climate. He described how ants store and preserve grain in their nests during the rainy season. He suggested an ingenious way of expelling mosquitoes and flies from a room based on his observation that some insects are responsive to light.
Al-Jahiz expounded on the degree of intelligence of animal species and insects. He also observed that certain parasites adapt to the color of their host, and expounded on the effects of diet and climate not only on men but also on animals and plants. Eighty-seven folios of the Book of Animals (about one-tenth of the original text by al-Jahiz) are preserved in Ambrosiana Library in Milan. This collection (a copy of the original) dates from the 14th century and bears the name of the last owner 'Abd al-Rahman al-Maghribi and the year 1615. These folios of the Book of Animals contain more than 30 illustrations in miniature.
As was common with writings of Muslim scientists of the golden Age (8th to 10th century), al-Jahiz recognized the signs of Allah (The One and Only God) in the creation. In the Book of Animals he wrote that a pebble proves the existence of Allah just as much as a mountain, and the human body is evidence as strong as the universe - for the small and slight carries as much weight as the great and vast.
Al-Jahiz returned to Basra after spending more than fifty years in Baghdad. He died in Basra in 868 C.E. as a result of an accident in which he was crushed to death by a collapsing pile of books in his private library.
Al-Jahiz's earliest writing on the 'Institution of the Caliphate' was well received at the court of Baghdad. Around 815 C.E., al-Jahiz moved to Baghdad, a city founded about fifteen years before his birth as the seat of Abbasi Khilafat and the capital of Islamic Empire (excluding Andalusia, i.e., Spain, Portugal and southern France). He continued to write on a variety of subjects and was well respected at Caliph's court. Although he was admired by court officials, he never worked for them nor held any official position. Al-Jahiz wrote more than two hundred works but only thirty are extant. His work included zoology, Arabic grammar, poetry, rhetoric and lexicography. He is considered as one of the few Muslim scientists who wrote on scientific and complex subjects for nonspecialists and common people. His writings contain many anecdotes regardless of the subject he is discussing to make his point and to bring out both sides of an argument. Some of his famous books are: The Book of Animals, The Art of Keeping One's Mouth Shut, Against Civil Servants, Arab Food, In Praise of Merchants, and Levity and Seriousness. On the style of writing, al-Jahiz advanced that:
" The best style is the clearest, the style that needs no explication and no notes, that conforms to the subject expressed, neither exceeding it nor falling short "
His most famous book 'Kitab al-Hayawan' (Book of Animals) is an encyclopedia of seven large volumes. He was rewarded with 5,000 gold dinars from the court official to whom he dedicated the Book of Animals. Kitab al-Hayawan contains an amazing array of scientific information that was not to be fully developed until the first half of the twentieth century.
Al-Jahiz discusses his observation in detail on the social organization of ants, animal communication and psychology, and the effects of diet and climate. He described how ants store and preserve grain in their nests during the rainy season. He suggested an ingenious way of expelling mosquitoes and flies from a room based on his observation that some insects are responsive to light.
Al-Jahiz expounded on the degree of intelligence of animal species and insects. He also observed that certain parasites adapt to the color of their host, and expounded on the effects of diet and climate not only on men but also on animals and plants. Eighty-seven folios of the Book of Animals (about one-tenth of the original text by al-Jahiz) are preserved in Ambrosiana Library in Milan. This collection (a copy of the original) dates from the 14th century and bears the name of the last owner 'Abd al-Rahman al-Maghribi and the year 1615. These folios of the Book of Animals contain more than 30 illustrations in miniature.
As was common with writings of Muslim scientists of the golden Age (8th to 10th century), al-Jahiz recognized the signs of Allah (The One and Only God) in the creation. In the Book of Animals he wrote that a pebble proves the existence of Allah just as much as a mountain, and the human body is evidence as strong as the universe - for the small and slight carries as much weight as the great and vast.
Al-Jahiz returned to Basra after spending more than fifty years in Baghdad. He died in Basra in 868 C.E. as a result of an accident in which he was crushed to death by a collapsing pile of books in his private library.
Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khwarizmi
Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born (770 C.E.) at Khwarizm (Kheva), a town south of river Oxus in present Uzbekistan. (Uzbekistan, a Muslim country for over a thousand years, was taken over by the Russians in 1873.) His parents migrated to a place south of Baghdad when he was a child. The exact date of his birth is not known. It has been established from his contributions that he flourished under Khalifah al-Mamun at Baghdad during 813 to 833 C.E. and died around 840 C.E. He is best known for introducing the mathematical concept Algorithm.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of Algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name Algebra is derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. He developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections. The influence of al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history.
His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science, but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science.
He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as "Algorithm," or "Algorizm." In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
In addition to an important treatise on Astronomy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early 12th century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatises on Arithmetic, Kitab al-Jam'a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on Algebra, Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new science to the West "unknown till then." This book was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book in European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.
The contribution of al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy's views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizmi's leadership and they produced the first map of the globe (known world) in 830 C.E. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by Khalifah Mamun al-Rashid for measuring volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled "Kitab Surat-al-Ard," including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote "Kitab al-Tarikh" and "Kitab al-Rukhmat" (on sundials).
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of Algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name Algebra is derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. He developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections. The influence of al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history.
His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science, but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science.
He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as "Algorithm," or "Algorizm." In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
In addition to an important treatise on Astronomy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early 12th century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatises on Arithmetic, Kitab al-Jam'a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on Algebra, Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new science to the West "unknown till then." This book was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book in European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.
The contribution of al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy's views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizmi's leadership and they produced the first map of the globe (known world) in 830 C.E. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by Khalifah Mamun al-Rashid for measuring volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled "Kitab Surat-al-Ard," including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote "Kitab al-Tarikh" and "Kitab al-Rukhmat" (on sundials).
Abdul Malik Ibn Quraib Al-Asmai
Abdul Malik Ibn Quraib Al-Asmai was born in Basrah in 740 C.E. He was a pious Arab and a good student of Arabic poetry. Al-Asmai is considered as the first Muslim scientist who contributed to Zoology, Botany and Animal Husbandry.
His famous writings include Kitab al-Ibil, Kitab al-Khalil, Kitab al- Wuhush, Kitab al-Sha, and Kitab Khalq al-Insan. The last book on human anatomy demonstrates his considerable knowledge and expertise on the subject. Al-Asmai died in 828 C.E.
Al-Asmai's work was very popular among scientists of the ninth and tenth century.
His famous writings include Kitab al-Ibil, Kitab al-Khalil, Kitab al- Wuhush, Kitab al-Sha, and Kitab Khalq al-Insan. The last book on human anatomy demonstrates his considerable knowledge and expertise on the subject. Al-Asmai died in 828 C.E.
Al-Asmai's work was very popular among scientists of the ninth and tenth century.
Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan
Jabir Ibn Hayyan, is generally known as the Father of Chemistry. His full name was Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He established himself as one of the leading scientist while he practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa (in present day Iraq) around 776 C.E. In his early days, he was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizier during the Abbasi Khilafat of Haroon- al-Rashid. Jabir died in 803 C.E.
He is famous for writing more than one hundred monumental treatises, of which twenty-two deal with chemistry. He introduced experimental investigation in alchemy, creating the momentum for the modern chemistry. Jabir emphasized experimentation and development of methods to achieve reproductibility in his work. He devoted his efforts to the development of basic chemical methods and the study of various mechanisms of chemical reactions and thus helped evolve chemistry as a science from the legends of alchemy. Jabir emphasized that definite quantities of various substances are involved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, it can be said that he paved the way for the law of constant proportions. His contribution of fundamental importance to chemistry includes perfection of scientific techniques such as crystallization, distillation, calcination, sublimation and evaporation, besides developing several instruments for conducting these experiments.
Jabir's major practical achievement was the discovery of minerals and acids, which he prepared for the first time in his alembic. His invention of the alembic made the distillation process easy and systematic. Among his various breakthrough is the preparation of nitric, hydrochloric, citric and tartaric acid. His emphasis on systemic experimentation is outstanding. It is on the basis of such works that he is regarded as the father of modern chemistry.
In the words of Max Mayerhaff:
" The development of chemistry in Europe
can be traced directly to Jabir Ibn Hayyan "
Jabir was a pioneer in development of a number of applied chemical processes. His contribution include the development of steel, preparation of various metals, prevention of rusting, lettering in gold, use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, dyeing of cloth and tanning of leather, varnishing of waterproof cloth, identification of paints and greases. In addition, he developed aqua regia to dissolve gold. Jabir's experimental ideas paved the way for now commonly known classification of substances as metals, non-metals and volatile substances.
Jabir's Kitab al-Kimya, and Kitab al Sab'een were translated into Latin in Middle Ages. The translation of Kitab al-Kimya was published by the Englishman Robert of Chester in 1144 C.E. under the title "The Book of Composition of Alchemy". The second book was translated by the famous Gerard of Cremona. Berthelot translated some of his books with the titles "Book of Kingdom", "Book of Balances", "Book of the Mercury", and it is obvious that he did not use correct titles for Jabir's books.
Englishman Richard Russel translated and published (1678) Jabir's another work under the title "Sum of Perfection." He described him as Geber, the most famous Arabian prince and philosopher. These translations were popular in Europe for several centuries and have influenced the evolution of modern chemistry. Several technical terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, are found in various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, while many others preserved in Arabic have yet to be translated. He also contributed to other sciences such as medicine and astronomy.
He is famous for writing more than one hundred monumental treatises, of which twenty-two deal with chemistry. He introduced experimental investigation in alchemy, creating the momentum for the modern chemistry. Jabir emphasized experimentation and development of methods to achieve reproductibility in his work. He devoted his efforts to the development of basic chemical methods and the study of various mechanisms of chemical reactions and thus helped evolve chemistry as a science from the legends of alchemy. Jabir emphasized that definite quantities of various substances are involved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, it can be said that he paved the way for the law of constant proportions. His contribution of fundamental importance to chemistry includes perfection of scientific techniques such as crystallization, distillation, calcination, sublimation and evaporation, besides developing several instruments for conducting these experiments.
Jabir's major practical achievement was the discovery of minerals and acids, which he prepared for the first time in his alembic. His invention of the alembic made the distillation process easy and systematic. Among his various breakthrough is the preparation of nitric, hydrochloric, citric and tartaric acid. His emphasis on systemic experimentation is outstanding. It is on the basis of such works that he is regarded as the father of modern chemistry.
In the words of Max Mayerhaff:
" The development of chemistry in Europe
can be traced directly to Jabir Ibn Hayyan "
Jabir was a pioneer in development of a number of applied chemical processes. His contribution include the development of steel, preparation of various metals, prevention of rusting, lettering in gold, use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, dyeing of cloth and tanning of leather, varnishing of waterproof cloth, identification of paints and greases. In addition, he developed aqua regia to dissolve gold. Jabir's experimental ideas paved the way for now commonly known classification of substances as metals, non-metals and volatile substances.
Jabir's Kitab al-Kimya, and Kitab al Sab'een were translated into Latin in Middle Ages. The translation of Kitab al-Kimya was published by the Englishman Robert of Chester in 1144 C.E. under the title "The Book of Composition of Alchemy". The second book was translated by the famous Gerard of Cremona. Berthelot translated some of his books with the titles "Book of Kingdom", "Book of Balances", "Book of the Mercury", and it is obvious that he did not use correct titles for Jabir's books.
Englishman Richard Russel translated and published (1678) Jabir's another work under the title "Sum of Perfection." He described him as Geber, the most famous Arabian prince and philosopher. These translations were popular in Europe for several centuries and have influenced the evolution of modern chemistry. Several technical terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, are found in various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, while many others preserved in Arabic have yet to be translated. He also contributed to other sciences such as medicine and astronomy.
Friday, April 30, 2010
Surat Pengunduran Diri
To : Academic Controller of IISKD
From : Ust. Ahmad Fathoni, Sy. Lc
CC : BOG
Date : 27/04/2010
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim
Assalamu’alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh.
Dear Mr. Abdullah,
I would like to inform you that I am resigning from my position as Islamic Studies Coordinator, effective April 27.
Thank you for the opportunities for professional and personal development that you have provided me during the last four months. I learned many new things and I do appreciate the support you gave me. I believe I can help in other way to run the programs in the school insya Allah.
Sincerely,
Ust. Ahmad Fathoni, Sy, Lc
From : Ust. Ahmad Fathoni, Sy. Lc
CC : BOG
Date : 27/04/2010
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim
Assalamu’alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh.
Dear Mr. Abdullah,
I would like to inform you that I am resigning from my position as Islamic Studies Coordinator, effective April 27.
Thank you for the opportunities for professional and personal development that you have provided me during the last four months. I learned many new things and I do appreciate the support you gave me. I believe I can help in other way to run the programs in the school insya Allah.
Sincerely,
Ust. Ahmad Fathoni, Sy, Lc
Thursday, April 29, 2010
Blak-blakan
1. Jam setengah tiga sore diberitahu oleh kak Ju bahwa ust Abdullah ingin berjumpa di meeting room.
2. Tepat setengah tiga ana turun dan langsung menuju ke meeting room. Disana sudah ada ust Najmus, kemudian datang ust Abdullah.
3. Kami menunggu ust Adib datang barulah pertemuan dimulai.
4. Ust Abdullah memulai pembicaraan tentang bagaimana membantu ust Najmus dalam menangani kelasnya yang akan ditinggalkan selama hampir 15 hari karena beliau mau pulang ke Bangladesh. Intinya siapa yang akan menggantikan beliau selama kepergiannya.
5. Ust Abdullah mengambil keputusan untuk menyerahkan semua kelas ust Najmus kepada ana dengan alasan bahwa ana adalah Coordinator Islamic Studies.
6. Hmmm inilah masanya untuk meluahkan segala apa yang terpendam di dada ini sejak beberapa bulan belakangan.
7. Ana mengatakan kepada ust Abdullah bahwa masalah ini mudah saja jalan keluarnya
kalau memang mau mencari jalan keluar. Tapi sebelum itu dibincangkan ana mau klarifikasi tentang beberapa perkara kepada antum.
8. Apa maksud antum dengan mengatakan bahwa islamic Studies department is the worst department in the school? what is the indicator? since when the school set the system to judge its departments? what is the best department at the moment?
9. Ust Abdullah dan ust Adib menjawab bahwa indikatornya ialaha persiapan ujian tengah semester kemaren yang agak kalang kabut dibandingkan dengan departemen yang lainnya.
10. Ana bilang jangan samakan dapartemen islamic studies dengan departemen lain sebab departemen ini memang bermasalah dari awalnya. Masalahnya adalah guru-guru yang tidak mencukupi semenjak awal tahun. Ada guru masuk, sebulan dua keluar. Ini alhamdulillah ada guru baru yang masuk. itupun belum sampai sebulan. So jangan harapkan hasil yang maksimal dari departemen yang sangat minimal. Be fair bung!
11. Kemudian ana keluarkan print out nilai-nilai ujian tengah semester dari panitia
ujian yang memuat selengkapnya nilai ujian anak-anak. Ana katakan bahwa tidak seorangpun anak-anak yang dapat nilai NOL dalam mata pelajaran islamic studies dari kelas satu sd sampai kelas satu sma. Sedangakn banyak yang dapat NOL dalam subjek lain. Apakah juga dikatakan kepada head of department itu bahwa mereka adalah THE WORST?
12. Ana katakan nampaknya antum nggak bisa lagi bekerjasama dengan ana atau ana barangkali yang nggak bisa bekerjasama dengan antum atau juga ana antum anggap tidak membantu antum dalam menjalankan tugas antum. Fine! besok insya Allah anak serahkan surat peletakan jawatan sebagai coordinator of islamic studies. So insya Allah tidak akan ada lagi konflik anatara kita. Wassalam dan ana langsung keluar ruangan.
2. Tepat setengah tiga ana turun dan langsung menuju ke meeting room. Disana sudah ada ust Najmus, kemudian datang ust Abdullah.
3. Kami menunggu ust Adib datang barulah pertemuan dimulai.
4. Ust Abdullah memulai pembicaraan tentang bagaimana membantu ust Najmus dalam menangani kelasnya yang akan ditinggalkan selama hampir 15 hari karena beliau mau pulang ke Bangladesh. Intinya siapa yang akan menggantikan beliau selama kepergiannya.
5. Ust Abdullah mengambil keputusan untuk menyerahkan semua kelas ust Najmus kepada ana dengan alasan bahwa ana adalah Coordinator Islamic Studies.
6. Hmmm inilah masanya untuk meluahkan segala apa yang terpendam di dada ini sejak beberapa bulan belakangan.
7. Ana mengatakan kepada ust Abdullah bahwa masalah ini mudah saja jalan keluarnya
kalau memang mau mencari jalan keluar. Tapi sebelum itu dibincangkan ana mau klarifikasi tentang beberapa perkara kepada antum.
8. Apa maksud antum dengan mengatakan bahwa islamic Studies department is the worst department in the school? what is the indicator? since when the school set the system to judge its departments? what is the best department at the moment?
9. Ust Abdullah dan ust Adib menjawab bahwa indikatornya ialaha persiapan ujian tengah semester kemaren yang agak kalang kabut dibandingkan dengan departemen yang lainnya.
10. Ana bilang jangan samakan dapartemen islamic studies dengan departemen lain sebab departemen ini memang bermasalah dari awalnya. Masalahnya adalah guru-guru yang tidak mencukupi semenjak awal tahun. Ada guru masuk, sebulan dua keluar. Ini alhamdulillah ada guru baru yang masuk. itupun belum sampai sebulan. So jangan harapkan hasil yang maksimal dari departemen yang sangat minimal. Be fair bung!
11. Kemudian ana keluarkan print out nilai-nilai ujian tengah semester dari panitia
ujian yang memuat selengkapnya nilai ujian anak-anak. Ana katakan bahwa tidak seorangpun anak-anak yang dapat nilai NOL dalam mata pelajaran islamic studies dari kelas satu sd sampai kelas satu sma. Sedangakn banyak yang dapat NOL dalam subjek lain. Apakah juga dikatakan kepada head of department itu bahwa mereka adalah THE WORST?
12. Ana katakan nampaknya antum nggak bisa lagi bekerjasama dengan ana atau ana barangkali yang nggak bisa bekerjasama dengan antum atau juga ana antum anggap tidak membantu antum dalam menjalankan tugas antum. Fine! besok insya Allah anak serahkan surat peletakan jawatan sebagai coordinator of islamic studies. So insya Allah tidak akan ada lagi konflik anatara kita. Wassalam dan ana langsung keluar ruangan.
Wednesday, April 28, 2010
Otak Remaja yang Sering Nekat
Remaja sering bertindak nekat, merasa dirinya kebal, tidak rasional dalam memberi alasan dan menerima informasi, serta bertindak tanpa berpikir. Kenapa otak remaja seperti tak mengenal takut?
Ada kekuatan besar di otak, yang merespons reaksi otak untuk mencari potensi dan mengejar sensasi, yang bisa menggerakkan remaja untuk memilih hal yang berisiko sebagai hal yang benar.
"Dalam situasi tenang, remaja dapat merasionalisasi hampir sebaik orang dewasa," kata Ron Dahl, seorang dokter anak dan peneliti psikiatri anak di University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, seperti dilansir dari EDinformatics, Selasa (27/4/2010).
Namun, menurutnya Dahl, bila seorang remaja sedang stres, otak akan memerintahkan 'kognitif panas' yang membuat remaja melakukan tindakan berisiko.
Seharusnya, bagian otak lobus frontalis akan membantu mengerem keinginan untuk mencari sensasi dan menantang risiko tersebut.
Tetapi bagian otak ini adalah salah satu bagian otak yang terakhir berkembang, dan pada usia remaja biasanya bagian ini belum berkembang sepenuhnya.
Ketika bagian otak mengalami perkembangan ulang, remaja sangat rentan terhadap perilaku berisiko, seperti minum alkohol, narkoba dan kebut-kebutan. Dan tingkat kedewasaan otaklah yang menyebabkan hal ini terjadi.
Hasil studi ini dapat diimplikasikan untuk memahami otak remaja dengan kegiatan di sekolah, lingkungan, dan di rumah.
Salah satu tujuannya adalah untuk mempelajari apa yang guru lakukan untuk memanfaatkan waktu dengan perubahan otak murid-muridnya. Misalnya, jika beberapa bagian otak murid berkembang lebih cepat daripada yang lain, mata pelajaran sekolah bisa diajarkan dalam urutan yang berbeda.
Selain itu, studi tentang otak juga dapat membantu menyelesaikan konflik di rumah. Remaja dapat belajar banyak, tetapi bagian otak mereka yang terkait dengan emosi dan pengambilan keputusan masih dalam proses perkembangan.
Ada kekuatan besar di otak, yang merespons reaksi otak untuk mencari potensi dan mengejar sensasi, yang bisa menggerakkan remaja untuk memilih hal yang berisiko sebagai hal yang benar.
"Dalam situasi tenang, remaja dapat merasionalisasi hampir sebaik orang dewasa," kata Ron Dahl, seorang dokter anak dan peneliti psikiatri anak di University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, seperti dilansir dari EDinformatics, Selasa (27/4/2010).
Namun, menurutnya Dahl, bila seorang remaja sedang stres, otak akan memerintahkan 'kognitif panas' yang membuat remaja melakukan tindakan berisiko.
Seharusnya, bagian otak lobus frontalis akan membantu mengerem keinginan untuk mencari sensasi dan menantang risiko tersebut.
Tetapi bagian otak ini adalah salah satu bagian otak yang terakhir berkembang, dan pada usia remaja biasanya bagian ini belum berkembang sepenuhnya.
Ketika bagian otak mengalami perkembangan ulang, remaja sangat rentan terhadap perilaku berisiko, seperti minum alkohol, narkoba dan kebut-kebutan. Dan tingkat kedewasaan otaklah yang menyebabkan hal ini terjadi.
Hasil studi ini dapat diimplikasikan untuk memahami otak remaja dengan kegiatan di sekolah, lingkungan, dan di rumah.
Salah satu tujuannya adalah untuk mempelajari apa yang guru lakukan untuk memanfaatkan waktu dengan perubahan otak murid-muridnya. Misalnya, jika beberapa bagian otak murid berkembang lebih cepat daripada yang lain, mata pelajaran sekolah bisa diajarkan dalam urutan yang berbeda.
Selain itu, studi tentang otak juga dapat membantu menyelesaikan konflik di rumah. Remaja dapat belajar banyak, tetapi bagian otak mereka yang terkait dengan emosi dan pengambilan keputusan masih dalam proses perkembangan.
Kenapa Remaja Susah Bangun Pagi?
Orangtua kadang harus berteriak-teriak atau bolak-balik membangunkan anak remajanya di pagi hari agar tidak terlambat sekolah. Tapi si anak tetap saja sulit bangun. Sampai-sampai ada istilah bunyi yang menggelar pun tidak akan membuat si anak bangun.
Membangunkan anak remaja di pagi hari kadang membuat orangtua frustasi. Tidak sedikit orangtua yang akhirnya mengeluarkan kata-kata, 'Dasar pemalas', 'Mau jadi apa kamu kalau tidur terus' atau 'Bangun tidur saja susah apalagi yang lain'.
Kondisi susah membangunkan anak remaja dan anak remaja yang sulit bangun pagi dialami hampir seluruh orangtua dan anak remaja di dunia.
Kenapa anak remaja sulit bangun pagi?
Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan Mary Carskadon, profesor psikiatri dari Brown University tahun 2005 mencatat ada sekitar 30 persen remaja yang mengalami gangguan tidur. Usia remaja ini berkisar 10-18 tahun. Anak-anak usia remaja ini membutuhkan tidur waktu tidur 9-10 jam sehari.
Usia remaja adalah saat anak mengalami pubertas. Memasuki periode ini, tubuh remaja akan menyesuaikan diri termasuk waktu jam tidurnya.
Saat pubertas tubuh remaja akan mengalami pergeseran waktu tidur malam sekitar 2 jam dan kebanyakan tidak akan bisa tidur di bawah jam 11 malam. Ketika puber, tubuh remaja akan mengalami perubahan hormon dan hormon melatonin yang merangsang tubuh cepat tidur juga tertunda produksinya.
Bisa saja orangtua menyuruh anak masuk kamar dan tidur jam 10 malam tapi yang terjadi si anak hanya melihat langit-langit kamar dan mungkin baru akan mengantuk sekitar pukul 1 pagi.
Itulah yang menyebabkan remaja kesulitan bangun pagi. Karena jadwal tidurnya lebih larut sementara kebutuhan tidurnya 9 jam yang membuatnya sangat tersiksa bangun di pagi hari.
Jelas saja ini berbeda dengan waktu tidur orangtuanya. Orang dewasa bisa tanpa sadar tertidur pukul 10 malam dan hanya butuh 7-8 jam untuk tidur cukup.
"Remaja seperti berperang ketika harus bangun pagi, tapi itu tidak sepenuhnya kesalahan mereka," kata Jodi Mindell, pakar gangguan tidur anak dari the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia seperti dilansir dari Natioanl Sleep Organizaton, Minggu (25/4/2010).
Ritme sirkadian (jam biologis) remaja membuatnya lebih terjaga di malam hari sehingga seringkali remaja tertidur di dalam kelas.
Beberapa sekolah di Minneapolis, Amerika telah mengubah jadwal masuk sekolah dari semula pukul 07.00 menjadi pukul 08.00-08.30. Perubahan jam sekolah ini untuk membantu siswa lebih siap menghadapi pelajarannya.
Namun perubahan hormon bukan satu-satunya yang menjadi penyebab susah tidur remaja. Kebiasaan minum-minuman kafein, tidur di depan TV, tidur dengan cahaya terang juga memicu remaja semakin susah tidur malam.
Mengisi kegiatan dengan esktrakurikuler seperti olahraga atau kegiatan seni akan bagus buat remaja, sehingga ketika malam tubuhnya akan cepat tertidur karena sudah kelelahan.
Membuat jam tidur malam yang teratur buat remaja mungkin sulit, tapi dengan membiasakan memiliki jam tidur teratur akan membantu mengatasi remaja memiliki jam tidur yang baik. Remaja yang kurang tidur akan berpengaruh terhadap emosinya yang menjadi gampang marah dan mudah dipengaruhi hal-hal negatif.
Sebaiknya diperhatikan pula hal-hal yang bisa memperparah gangguan tidur remaja:
1. Jauhi minuman kafein dan nikotin yang dapat mengganggu tidur.
2. Hindari permainan komputer sebelum tidur.
3. Hindari berdebat dengan remaja sebelum tidur.
4. Hindari tidur dengan sinar komputer atau TV yang berkelap-kelip di kamarnya.
5. Hindari cahaya terang di malam hari sebaiknya matikan lampunya saat tidur yang akan mempercepat produksi hormon melatonin
6. Biarkan remaja tidur pada akhir pekan, tetapi tidak lebih dari 2 atau 3 jam agar tidak mengganggu jam tubuh mereka.
Membangunkan anak remaja di pagi hari kadang membuat orangtua frustasi. Tidak sedikit orangtua yang akhirnya mengeluarkan kata-kata, 'Dasar pemalas', 'Mau jadi apa kamu kalau tidur terus' atau 'Bangun tidur saja susah apalagi yang lain'.
Kondisi susah membangunkan anak remaja dan anak remaja yang sulit bangun pagi dialami hampir seluruh orangtua dan anak remaja di dunia.
Kenapa anak remaja sulit bangun pagi?
Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan Mary Carskadon, profesor psikiatri dari Brown University tahun 2005 mencatat ada sekitar 30 persen remaja yang mengalami gangguan tidur. Usia remaja ini berkisar 10-18 tahun. Anak-anak usia remaja ini membutuhkan tidur waktu tidur 9-10 jam sehari.
Usia remaja adalah saat anak mengalami pubertas. Memasuki periode ini, tubuh remaja akan menyesuaikan diri termasuk waktu jam tidurnya.
Saat pubertas tubuh remaja akan mengalami pergeseran waktu tidur malam sekitar 2 jam dan kebanyakan tidak akan bisa tidur di bawah jam 11 malam. Ketika puber, tubuh remaja akan mengalami perubahan hormon dan hormon melatonin yang merangsang tubuh cepat tidur juga tertunda produksinya.
Bisa saja orangtua menyuruh anak masuk kamar dan tidur jam 10 malam tapi yang terjadi si anak hanya melihat langit-langit kamar dan mungkin baru akan mengantuk sekitar pukul 1 pagi.
Itulah yang menyebabkan remaja kesulitan bangun pagi. Karena jadwal tidurnya lebih larut sementara kebutuhan tidurnya 9 jam yang membuatnya sangat tersiksa bangun di pagi hari.
Jelas saja ini berbeda dengan waktu tidur orangtuanya. Orang dewasa bisa tanpa sadar tertidur pukul 10 malam dan hanya butuh 7-8 jam untuk tidur cukup.
"Remaja seperti berperang ketika harus bangun pagi, tapi itu tidak sepenuhnya kesalahan mereka," kata Jodi Mindell, pakar gangguan tidur anak dari the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia seperti dilansir dari Natioanl Sleep Organizaton, Minggu (25/4/2010).
Ritme sirkadian (jam biologis) remaja membuatnya lebih terjaga di malam hari sehingga seringkali remaja tertidur di dalam kelas.
Beberapa sekolah di Minneapolis, Amerika telah mengubah jadwal masuk sekolah dari semula pukul 07.00 menjadi pukul 08.00-08.30. Perubahan jam sekolah ini untuk membantu siswa lebih siap menghadapi pelajarannya.
Namun perubahan hormon bukan satu-satunya yang menjadi penyebab susah tidur remaja. Kebiasaan minum-minuman kafein, tidur di depan TV, tidur dengan cahaya terang juga memicu remaja semakin susah tidur malam.
Mengisi kegiatan dengan esktrakurikuler seperti olahraga atau kegiatan seni akan bagus buat remaja, sehingga ketika malam tubuhnya akan cepat tertidur karena sudah kelelahan.
Membuat jam tidur malam yang teratur buat remaja mungkin sulit, tapi dengan membiasakan memiliki jam tidur teratur akan membantu mengatasi remaja memiliki jam tidur yang baik. Remaja yang kurang tidur akan berpengaruh terhadap emosinya yang menjadi gampang marah dan mudah dipengaruhi hal-hal negatif.
Sebaiknya diperhatikan pula hal-hal yang bisa memperparah gangguan tidur remaja:
1. Jauhi minuman kafein dan nikotin yang dapat mengganggu tidur.
2. Hindari permainan komputer sebelum tidur.
3. Hindari berdebat dengan remaja sebelum tidur.
4. Hindari tidur dengan sinar komputer atau TV yang berkelap-kelip di kamarnya.
5. Hindari cahaya terang di malam hari sebaiknya matikan lampunya saat tidur yang akan mempercepat produksi hormon melatonin
6. Biarkan remaja tidur pada akhir pekan, tetapi tidak lebih dari 2 atau 3 jam agar tidak mengganggu jam tubuh mereka.
3 Penyebab Gigi Keropos Anak
Gigi keropos atau berlubang merupakan keluhan yang sering terjadi pada anak-anak. Diperkirakan satu dari tiga anak mengalami gigi keropos. Apa penyebabnya dan bagaimana mengatasinya?
Gigi keropos atau karies gigi adalah penyakit gigi destruktif yang dapat menyebabkan rongga atau lubang pada gigi. Hal ini memang sering terjadi pada anak-anak dan dewasa muda. Gigi keropos dan busuk merupakan penyebab terbesar kehilangan gigi pada anak dan remaja.
Seperti dilansir dari DentalFind, Rabu (28/4/2010), penyebab pengeroposan gigi karena tiga faktor, yaitu plak, gula, dan permukaan gigi yang rentan.
Plak mengandung bakteri yang menghasilkan asam sebagai hasil sampingan konsumsi gula. Hal ini biasanya diperparah dengan konsumsi gula berlebihan pada anak-anak, seperti permen, coklat atau eskrim.
Gigi keropos dapat terjadi di mana asam yang dihasilkan oleh bakteri yang ditemukan pada plak menempel pada gigi seseorang. Seiring waktu, asam ini mulai menyerang email, yaitu lapisan paling luar gigi, dan menyebabkan pengeroposan gigi.
Meskipun kerusakan gigi dapat diobati dengan berbagai cara, cara terbaik untuk memerangi gigi yang buruk adalah untuk mencegahnya dengan menjaga kebersihan gigi yang tepat.
Berikut cara untuk mencegah gigi keropos:
1. Batasi konsumsi gula pada anak, seperti permen, coklat, eskrim dan softdrink (minuman bersoda)
2. Lakukan perawatan gigi secara teratur, seperti menyikat gigi yang tepat dua kali sehari dan flossing (membersihkan gigi dengan benang) setiap hari
3. Menggunakan pasta gigi yang mengandung flouride. Penggunaan flouride secara teratur dapat memerangi pengkeroposan gigi.
4. Menggunakan sealants, yaitu lapisan plastik tipis yang diterapkan pada permukaan gigi yang digunakan untuk mengunyah. Sealants biasanya digunakan pada anak saat gigi gerahamnya mulai tumbuh.
Namun, bila pengkeroposan gigi sudah terjadi, sangat penting untuk berkonsultasi dengan dokter. Karena bila kerusakan gigi terus terjadi dan tidak dilakukan perawatan, maka kerusakan bisa mencapai ujung saraf gigi.
Biasanya dokter gigi akan mengobati gigi keropos dengan membuang gigi yang membusuk dengan menggunakan bor gigi khusus. Kemudian dokter akan mengisi lubang tadi dengan bahan khusus, atau yang dikenal dengan tambal gigi.
Tapi jika gigi yang mengalami pengkeroposan sudah cukup parah, maka kemungkinan gigi tersebut akan dicabut.
Bila gigi anak yang mengalami pengkeroposan masih gigi susu, maka tidak terlalu menjadi masalah besar, karena bila gigi tersebut dicabut akan tumbuh gigi permanen yang baru.
Tapi bila yang mengalami pengkeroposan adalah gigi permanen, maka hal tersebut memerlukan perawatan khusus.
Gigi keropos atau karies gigi adalah penyakit gigi destruktif yang dapat menyebabkan rongga atau lubang pada gigi. Hal ini memang sering terjadi pada anak-anak dan dewasa muda. Gigi keropos dan busuk merupakan penyebab terbesar kehilangan gigi pada anak dan remaja.
Seperti dilansir dari DentalFind, Rabu (28/4/2010), penyebab pengeroposan gigi karena tiga faktor, yaitu plak, gula, dan permukaan gigi yang rentan.
Plak mengandung bakteri yang menghasilkan asam sebagai hasil sampingan konsumsi gula. Hal ini biasanya diperparah dengan konsumsi gula berlebihan pada anak-anak, seperti permen, coklat atau eskrim.
Gigi keropos dapat terjadi di mana asam yang dihasilkan oleh bakteri yang ditemukan pada plak menempel pada gigi seseorang. Seiring waktu, asam ini mulai menyerang email, yaitu lapisan paling luar gigi, dan menyebabkan pengeroposan gigi.
Meskipun kerusakan gigi dapat diobati dengan berbagai cara, cara terbaik untuk memerangi gigi yang buruk adalah untuk mencegahnya dengan menjaga kebersihan gigi yang tepat.
Berikut cara untuk mencegah gigi keropos:
1. Batasi konsumsi gula pada anak, seperti permen, coklat, eskrim dan softdrink (minuman bersoda)
2. Lakukan perawatan gigi secara teratur, seperti menyikat gigi yang tepat dua kali sehari dan flossing (membersihkan gigi dengan benang) setiap hari
3. Menggunakan pasta gigi yang mengandung flouride. Penggunaan flouride secara teratur dapat memerangi pengkeroposan gigi.
4. Menggunakan sealants, yaitu lapisan plastik tipis yang diterapkan pada permukaan gigi yang digunakan untuk mengunyah. Sealants biasanya digunakan pada anak saat gigi gerahamnya mulai tumbuh.
Namun, bila pengkeroposan gigi sudah terjadi, sangat penting untuk berkonsultasi dengan dokter. Karena bila kerusakan gigi terus terjadi dan tidak dilakukan perawatan, maka kerusakan bisa mencapai ujung saraf gigi.
Biasanya dokter gigi akan mengobati gigi keropos dengan membuang gigi yang membusuk dengan menggunakan bor gigi khusus. Kemudian dokter akan mengisi lubang tadi dengan bahan khusus, atau yang dikenal dengan tambal gigi.
Tapi jika gigi yang mengalami pengkeroposan sudah cukup parah, maka kemungkinan gigi tersebut akan dicabut.
Bila gigi anak yang mengalami pengkeroposan masih gigi susu, maka tidak terlalu menjadi masalah besar, karena bila gigi tersebut dicabut akan tumbuh gigi permanen yang baru.
Tapi bila yang mengalami pengkeroposan adalah gigi permanen, maka hal tersebut memerlukan perawatan khusus.
Kenapa Saat Malu Muka Jadi Memerah?
Pernahkah merasa muka memerah saat malu atau tersipu-sipu? Fenomena pipi memerah saat malu ini menarik ilmuwan mencari tahu lebih banyak lagi untuk menjawab mengapa muka bisa memerah kalau sedang malu.
Muka yang memerah dan perasaan malu biasanya berjalan beriringan. Perasaan yang bergejolak merupakan respons alami dari seseorang terhadap sesuatu yang terjadi pada dirinya.
Pipi yang memerah karena malu diatur oleh sistem yang juga mengaktifkan respons melawan yaitu sisrem saraf simpatik. Sistem ini bekerja secara tanpa sengaja atau spontan yang berarti tidak ada sesuatu yang benar-benar harus dipikirkan untuk melakukan proses tersebut. Sedangkan aktivitas seperti menggerakkan lengan atau berjalan merupakan tindakan yang disengaja atau dipikirkan.
Saat seseorang sedang malu, maka tubuh akan mengeluarkan hormon adrenalin. Hormon ini bertindak sebagai stimulan alami dan memiliki berbagai efek pada tubuh yang merupakan bagian dari respons. Saat adrenalin meningkat, maka napas dan detak jantung juga akan meningkat. Hal ini dapat memperlambat proses pencernaan sehingga energi dialihkan ke otot.
Seperti dikutip dari Howstuffworks, Selasa (27/4/2010) jika seseorang sedang tersipu-sipu atau malu, maka pembuluh darah di wajah akan merespons sinyal dari pemancar kimia adenylyl cyclase.
Akibatnya pembuluh darah di wajah akan melebar (vasodilation) dan memungkinkan lebih banyak darah mengalir melalui wajah daripada biasanya. Kondisi ini akan membuat wajah seseorang memerah.
Hal ini adalah salah satu respons yang tidak biasa dari pembuluh darah vena. Karena pada daerah lain di tubuh, vena tidak melakukan hal ini ketika adrenalin dilepaskan. Hormon ini memiliki pengaruh yang kecil atau tidak sama sekali terhadap pembuluh darah vena. Umumnya ada pembuluh darah lain yang lebih responsif terhadap adrenalin.
Sebagian orang ada yang menjalani operasi untuk membatasi respons muka memerah, bedah ini disebut dengan endothoracic sympathectomy. Biasanya orang yang memiliki erythrophobia (takut merona) paling sering melakukan operasi ini dengan cara memotong saraf kecil di tulangnya yang berfungsi mengendalikan respons merona.
"Wajah memerah karena malu berkembang bersama dengan kesadaran kita terhadap orang lain dan hal ini menunjukkan adanya dasar sosial. Selain itu muka memerah mungkin bisa berfungsi sebagai permintaan maaf yang nonverbal atas sesuatu yang dirasakan orang tersebut," ujar Ray Crozier, profesor psikolog dari University of East Anglia di Inggris, seperti dikutip dari BBC.
Terlepas dari apa yang membuat muka seseorang memerah, kondisi ini adalah sesuatu yang alami dan tidak bisa diatur. Jika Anda mengalami situasi yang membuat diri sendiri canggung atau malu, maka Anda akan merasakan pipi menjadi hangat dan ingat bahwa hal ini akan berlalu dengan sendirinya.
Muka yang memerah dan perasaan malu biasanya berjalan beriringan. Perasaan yang bergejolak merupakan respons alami dari seseorang terhadap sesuatu yang terjadi pada dirinya.
Pipi yang memerah karena malu diatur oleh sistem yang juga mengaktifkan respons melawan yaitu sisrem saraf simpatik. Sistem ini bekerja secara tanpa sengaja atau spontan yang berarti tidak ada sesuatu yang benar-benar harus dipikirkan untuk melakukan proses tersebut. Sedangkan aktivitas seperti menggerakkan lengan atau berjalan merupakan tindakan yang disengaja atau dipikirkan.
Saat seseorang sedang malu, maka tubuh akan mengeluarkan hormon adrenalin. Hormon ini bertindak sebagai stimulan alami dan memiliki berbagai efek pada tubuh yang merupakan bagian dari respons. Saat adrenalin meningkat, maka napas dan detak jantung juga akan meningkat. Hal ini dapat memperlambat proses pencernaan sehingga energi dialihkan ke otot.
Seperti dikutip dari Howstuffworks, Selasa (27/4/2010) jika seseorang sedang tersipu-sipu atau malu, maka pembuluh darah di wajah akan merespons sinyal dari pemancar kimia adenylyl cyclase.
Akibatnya pembuluh darah di wajah akan melebar (vasodilation) dan memungkinkan lebih banyak darah mengalir melalui wajah daripada biasanya. Kondisi ini akan membuat wajah seseorang memerah.
Hal ini adalah salah satu respons yang tidak biasa dari pembuluh darah vena. Karena pada daerah lain di tubuh, vena tidak melakukan hal ini ketika adrenalin dilepaskan. Hormon ini memiliki pengaruh yang kecil atau tidak sama sekali terhadap pembuluh darah vena. Umumnya ada pembuluh darah lain yang lebih responsif terhadap adrenalin.
Sebagian orang ada yang menjalani operasi untuk membatasi respons muka memerah, bedah ini disebut dengan endothoracic sympathectomy. Biasanya orang yang memiliki erythrophobia (takut merona) paling sering melakukan operasi ini dengan cara memotong saraf kecil di tulangnya yang berfungsi mengendalikan respons merona.
"Wajah memerah karena malu berkembang bersama dengan kesadaran kita terhadap orang lain dan hal ini menunjukkan adanya dasar sosial. Selain itu muka memerah mungkin bisa berfungsi sebagai permintaan maaf yang nonverbal atas sesuatu yang dirasakan orang tersebut," ujar Ray Crozier, profesor psikolog dari University of East Anglia di Inggris, seperti dikutip dari BBC.
Terlepas dari apa yang membuat muka seseorang memerah, kondisi ini adalah sesuatu yang alami dan tidak bisa diatur. Jika Anda mengalami situasi yang membuat diri sendiri canggung atau malu, maka Anda akan merasakan pipi menjadi hangat dan ingat bahwa hal ini akan berlalu dengan sendirinya.
Cara Memperbesar Penis dengan Daun Bungkus
Daun bungkus menjadi buah bibir karena mampu memperbesar alat kelamin pria. Hampir sebagian besar lelaki di Papua tahu bagaimana menggunakan daun 'ajaib' ini. Berikut pengakuan pria pemakai daun bungkus.
Seorang karyawan swasta yang bekerja di Timika menceritakan pengalamannya menggunakan daun bungkus kepada detikHealth, Rabu (28/4/2010).
Lelaki yang sebut saja bernama Mario 37 tahun itu, mengaku sudah menggunakan daun bungkus selama 1 tahun. Hasilnya? "Ada penambahan panjang yang signifikan," katanya memperkirakan angka 2-3 cm.
Menurut Mario untuk mempertahankan hasil yang didapatkan maka penggunaan daun bungkus tidak bisa sekali dua kali saja.
Pada awal-awal menggunakannya, Mario mengoleskan ujung penisnya dengan daun bungkus seminggu 2 kali. Setelah mendapatkan hasilnya, kini Mario cukup mengoleskan daun bungkus di senjatanya 1-2 bulan sekali.
Mario membeli daun bungkus ini dari informasi teman ke teman karena daun bungkus tidak dijual secara terbuka atau dipasarkan secara bebas.
Daun bungkus yang dibeli Mario berupa daun bungkus yang sudah ditumbuk halus dengan diberi sedikit air sehingga tinggal dioleskan ke penis.
Di Papua, bubuk daun bungkus yang berwarna hijau tua itu dimasukkan dalam botol ukuran 10 cm tapi isinya hanya sepertiganya saja. Harga jualnya jika dibeli langsung ke pembuatnya hanya Rp 20-30 ribu.
Mario menjelaskan, cara penggunaan bubuk basah daun bungkus terbilang sederhana dan mudah. Caranya:
1. Cukup ambil bubuk daun bungkus seujung sendok teh lalu ditaruhkan pada selembar tisu agar lebih mudah membungkusnya.
2. Tisu yang sudah ada daun bungkusnya dibalutkan pada batang penis bagian atas atau ujungnya saja dan tidak boleh keseluruhan.
3. Jika sudah terasa hangat segera angkat tisu yang berisi daun bungkus dan penis diurut untuk diratakan.
"Jika kandungan air di daun bungkus tidak terlalu banyak, maka dalam waktu 3-5 menit saja sudah terasa hangat. Tapi kalau kandungan airnya masih agak banyak dibutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama. Dan jangan membalut seluruh bagian penis, karena kulit daerah bawah penis sangat sensitif sehingga lebih mudah lecet," tutur Mario.
Jika terlalu lama membalutkan daun ini akan menyebabkan penis membengkak dan melepuh. Kalau sudah membengkak membutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama untuk mengembalikan kulit ke bentuk normal dan biasanya bisa mencapai 2 minggu waktu pemulihan.
Untuk tahap awal, menurut Mario biasanya orang-orang mengulanginya setiap 2 hari sekali tidak perlu tiap hari agar memberikan waktu pada kulit berada dalam kondisi normal.
Reaksi yang diberikan dari daun bungkus ini terbilang cepat, karena dalam waktu beberapa menit setelah digunakan maka penis akan menegang.
Namun untuk mencapai hasil yang maksimal tidak bisa didapatkan dalam waktu singkat, karena untuk mendapatkan bentuk penis yang permanen harus diulang beberapa kali tergantung kondisi orang tersebut.
"Bukan permanen sekali, tapi setidaknya bentuk yang sudah maksimal tidak terlalu ada perubahan. Kalau mau cepat atau instant sebenarnya juga bisa, tapi menurut saya nanti ukurannya bisa kembali lagi ke bentuk normal. Karena menurut saya cara kerja dari daun ini hanya merangsang pembesaran dari pembuluh darah," ujar lelaki yang sudah sejak kecil tinggal di Papua ini.
Mengenai pelarangan masuknya anggota polisi yang menggunakan daun ini untuk memperbesar alat vitalnya, Mario mengaku tak mengerti alasan pelarangan tersebut.
Menurutnya daun ini berasal dari alam dan terbebas dari penggunaan bahan kimia apapun. Selain itu hingga kini efek samping yang ditimbulkan hanya rasa tak nyaman dan bengkak atau melepuh jika memakainya terlalu lama.
Saat dikonfirmasi ke dr Hardhi Pranata selaku ketua Umum Perhimpunan Dokter Herbal Medik Indonesia mengenai khasiat dari daun bungkus untuk memperbesar alat vital, dirinya mengaku belum pernah mendengar hal tersebut dan belum ada penelitian ilmiah yang membahas hal ini.
"Prinsip pembesaran penis adalah adanya aliran darah arteri yang terus menerus ke bagian korpus skrotum serta menghambat aliran darah baliknya yaitu vena. Hal ini akan membuat korpus skrotum terisi darah dan membesar. Namun mengenai kinerja dari daun bungus ini, ia mengaku belum mengetahuinya," ujarnya ketika diwawancarai detikHealth.
Hingga kini memang belum ada satupun penelitian ilmiah atau medis yang dapat menunjukkan khasiat dari daun bungkus ini. Pakar herbal juga masih kesulitan menemukan nama latin daun bungkus ini.
Penelti herbal buah merah (Pandanus conoideus) drs I Made Budi MSi dari Universitas Cendrawasih ketika diwawancarai detikHealth mengaku belum pernah meneliti daun bungkus ini.
Tapi menurutnya, khasiat daun bungkus yang tumbuhnya merayap di hutan ini ada pada trikoma atau rambut daun. Made juga mengingatkan agar hati-hati menggunakan daun bungkus karena belum ada penelitiannya sehingga jangan sampai si pemakai mengalami masalah karena tidak ada petunjuk yang jelas.
Seorang karyawan swasta yang bekerja di Timika menceritakan pengalamannya menggunakan daun bungkus kepada detikHealth, Rabu (28/4/2010).
Lelaki yang sebut saja bernama Mario 37 tahun itu, mengaku sudah menggunakan daun bungkus selama 1 tahun. Hasilnya? "Ada penambahan panjang yang signifikan," katanya memperkirakan angka 2-3 cm.
Menurut Mario untuk mempertahankan hasil yang didapatkan maka penggunaan daun bungkus tidak bisa sekali dua kali saja.
Pada awal-awal menggunakannya, Mario mengoleskan ujung penisnya dengan daun bungkus seminggu 2 kali. Setelah mendapatkan hasilnya, kini Mario cukup mengoleskan daun bungkus di senjatanya 1-2 bulan sekali.
Mario membeli daun bungkus ini dari informasi teman ke teman karena daun bungkus tidak dijual secara terbuka atau dipasarkan secara bebas.
Daun bungkus yang dibeli Mario berupa daun bungkus yang sudah ditumbuk halus dengan diberi sedikit air sehingga tinggal dioleskan ke penis.
Di Papua, bubuk daun bungkus yang berwarna hijau tua itu dimasukkan dalam botol ukuran 10 cm tapi isinya hanya sepertiganya saja. Harga jualnya jika dibeli langsung ke pembuatnya hanya Rp 20-30 ribu.
Mario menjelaskan, cara penggunaan bubuk basah daun bungkus terbilang sederhana dan mudah. Caranya:
1. Cukup ambil bubuk daun bungkus seujung sendok teh lalu ditaruhkan pada selembar tisu agar lebih mudah membungkusnya.
2. Tisu yang sudah ada daun bungkusnya dibalutkan pada batang penis bagian atas atau ujungnya saja dan tidak boleh keseluruhan.
3. Jika sudah terasa hangat segera angkat tisu yang berisi daun bungkus dan penis diurut untuk diratakan.
"Jika kandungan air di daun bungkus tidak terlalu banyak, maka dalam waktu 3-5 menit saja sudah terasa hangat. Tapi kalau kandungan airnya masih agak banyak dibutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama. Dan jangan membalut seluruh bagian penis, karena kulit daerah bawah penis sangat sensitif sehingga lebih mudah lecet," tutur Mario.
Jika terlalu lama membalutkan daun ini akan menyebabkan penis membengkak dan melepuh. Kalau sudah membengkak membutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama untuk mengembalikan kulit ke bentuk normal dan biasanya bisa mencapai 2 minggu waktu pemulihan.
Untuk tahap awal, menurut Mario biasanya orang-orang mengulanginya setiap 2 hari sekali tidak perlu tiap hari agar memberikan waktu pada kulit berada dalam kondisi normal.
Reaksi yang diberikan dari daun bungkus ini terbilang cepat, karena dalam waktu beberapa menit setelah digunakan maka penis akan menegang.
Namun untuk mencapai hasil yang maksimal tidak bisa didapatkan dalam waktu singkat, karena untuk mendapatkan bentuk penis yang permanen harus diulang beberapa kali tergantung kondisi orang tersebut.
"Bukan permanen sekali, tapi setidaknya bentuk yang sudah maksimal tidak terlalu ada perubahan. Kalau mau cepat atau instant sebenarnya juga bisa, tapi menurut saya nanti ukurannya bisa kembali lagi ke bentuk normal. Karena menurut saya cara kerja dari daun ini hanya merangsang pembesaran dari pembuluh darah," ujar lelaki yang sudah sejak kecil tinggal di Papua ini.
Mengenai pelarangan masuknya anggota polisi yang menggunakan daun ini untuk memperbesar alat vitalnya, Mario mengaku tak mengerti alasan pelarangan tersebut.
Menurutnya daun ini berasal dari alam dan terbebas dari penggunaan bahan kimia apapun. Selain itu hingga kini efek samping yang ditimbulkan hanya rasa tak nyaman dan bengkak atau melepuh jika memakainya terlalu lama.
Saat dikonfirmasi ke dr Hardhi Pranata selaku ketua Umum Perhimpunan Dokter Herbal Medik Indonesia mengenai khasiat dari daun bungkus untuk memperbesar alat vital, dirinya mengaku belum pernah mendengar hal tersebut dan belum ada penelitian ilmiah yang membahas hal ini.
"Prinsip pembesaran penis adalah adanya aliran darah arteri yang terus menerus ke bagian korpus skrotum serta menghambat aliran darah baliknya yaitu vena. Hal ini akan membuat korpus skrotum terisi darah dan membesar. Namun mengenai kinerja dari daun bungus ini, ia mengaku belum mengetahuinya," ujarnya ketika diwawancarai detikHealth.
Hingga kini memang belum ada satupun penelitian ilmiah atau medis yang dapat menunjukkan khasiat dari daun bungkus ini. Pakar herbal juga masih kesulitan menemukan nama latin daun bungkus ini.
Penelti herbal buah merah (Pandanus conoideus) drs I Made Budi MSi dari Universitas Cendrawasih ketika diwawancarai detikHealth mengaku belum pernah meneliti daun bungkus ini.
Tapi menurutnya, khasiat daun bungkus yang tumbuhnya merayap di hutan ini ada pada trikoma atau rambut daun. Made juga mengingatkan agar hati-hati menggunakan daun bungkus karena belum ada penelitiannya sehingga jangan sampai si pemakai mengalami masalah karena tidak ada petunjuk yang jelas.
Edan, Produk Olahan Daging Anjing, Keledai, dan Kucing Beredar di Mesir
Beriringan dengan melonjaknya harga daging yang tembus hingga angka 50 persen di Mesir, beberapa produk olahan daging anjing dan keledai (semisal sosis, soguk, hawawshi, daging giling, dan lain-lain) beredar di pasaran kota-kota negara itu.
Surat kabar independen Mesir Al-Mashri Al-Yaum (27/4) menguak kasus beredarnya produk olahan daging tersebut di kota Alexandria. Beberapa puluh potongan kepala anjing dan keledai ditemukan di tempat jagal di bilangan Amiriya, Alexandria.
Salah seorang penduduk bilangan tersebut, Mahmoud Ali, mengaku jika beredarnya beberapa produk olahan daging anjing dan keledai di bilangannya sudah terjadi cukup lama. Kebanyakan produk tersebut dikemas dalam bentuk daging giling atau hawawshi.
"Produsen daging olahan itu kemudian menjual dan mendistribusikannya ke toko-toko dan warung-warung kebab," kata Ali.
Seorang penduduk yang lain, Salim Ahmad, mengatakan jika peredaran produk olahan daging tersebut tidak hanya terbatas di pasar-pasar kawasan kumuh (slum/ashwa'iyyah), tetapi juga di restoran-restoran dan hotel di Alexandria.
Namun, peredaran produk olahan daging anjing dan keledai itu lebih banyak terkonsentrasi dan sudah berlangsung sangat lama di kawasan penduduk menengah ke bawah dan kumuh (ahya ahu'biyyah wa ashwa'iyyah).
"Para penduduk di kawasan menengah ke bawah dan kawasan kumuh adalah konsumen produk tersebut. Mereka sebenarnya tahu itu produk daging anjing dan keledai, tetapi tetap saja mengkonsumsinya karena harganya yang terjangkau oleh uang mereka," jelas Gamal Abdul Lathif, seorang penduduk lainnya.
Pasca terungkapnya kasus ini secara publik, pihak pemerintahan daerah Alexandria kini segera melakukan penyelidikan serius.
Sementara itu, harian berbahasa Arab lainnya, Al-Quds (27/4), melansir, jika kasus beredarnya produk daging olahan anjing dan keledai ini juga terjadi di beberapa kawasan kumuh ibu kota Kairo dan provinsi Giza, semisal Kadrasah, Bulaq Daqrur, Warraq, dan lain-lain.
Di kawasan-kawasan tersebut, bukan hanya daging anjing dan keledai saja yang beredar, tetapi juga produk olahan daging kucing dan daging ternak tiren (mati kemaren).
Sekitar seminggu yang lalu, pihak keamanan Kairo berhasil meringkus petugas di salah satu rumah jagal di kota tersebut yang kedapatan tengah mengolah 'bangkai' daging kerbau. Petugas jagal itu mengaku jika dirinya mengumpulkan hewan-hewan ternak yang sudah mati dari para petani, untuk kemudian ia sembelih dan kuliti, dan dijadikan produk daging olahan. (my/qs)
Surat kabar independen Mesir Al-Mashri Al-Yaum (27/4) menguak kasus beredarnya produk olahan daging tersebut di kota Alexandria. Beberapa puluh potongan kepala anjing dan keledai ditemukan di tempat jagal di bilangan Amiriya, Alexandria.
Salah seorang penduduk bilangan tersebut, Mahmoud Ali, mengaku jika beredarnya beberapa produk olahan daging anjing dan keledai di bilangannya sudah terjadi cukup lama. Kebanyakan produk tersebut dikemas dalam bentuk daging giling atau hawawshi.
"Produsen daging olahan itu kemudian menjual dan mendistribusikannya ke toko-toko dan warung-warung kebab," kata Ali.
Seorang penduduk yang lain, Salim Ahmad, mengatakan jika peredaran produk olahan daging tersebut tidak hanya terbatas di pasar-pasar kawasan kumuh (slum/ashwa'iyyah), tetapi juga di restoran-restoran dan hotel di Alexandria.
Namun, peredaran produk olahan daging anjing dan keledai itu lebih banyak terkonsentrasi dan sudah berlangsung sangat lama di kawasan penduduk menengah ke bawah dan kumuh (ahya ahu'biyyah wa ashwa'iyyah).
"Para penduduk di kawasan menengah ke bawah dan kawasan kumuh adalah konsumen produk tersebut. Mereka sebenarnya tahu itu produk daging anjing dan keledai, tetapi tetap saja mengkonsumsinya karena harganya yang terjangkau oleh uang mereka," jelas Gamal Abdul Lathif, seorang penduduk lainnya.
Pasca terungkapnya kasus ini secara publik, pihak pemerintahan daerah Alexandria kini segera melakukan penyelidikan serius.
Sementara itu, harian berbahasa Arab lainnya, Al-Quds (27/4), melansir, jika kasus beredarnya produk daging olahan anjing dan keledai ini juga terjadi di beberapa kawasan kumuh ibu kota Kairo dan provinsi Giza, semisal Kadrasah, Bulaq Daqrur, Warraq, dan lain-lain.
Di kawasan-kawasan tersebut, bukan hanya daging anjing dan keledai saja yang beredar, tetapi juga produk olahan daging kucing dan daging ternak tiren (mati kemaren).
Sekitar seminggu yang lalu, pihak keamanan Kairo berhasil meringkus petugas di salah satu rumah jagal di kota tersebut yang kedapatan tengah mengolah 'bangkai' daging kerbau. Petugas jagal itu mengaku jika dirinya mengumpulkan hewan-hewan ternak yang sudah mati dari para petani, untuk kemudian ia sembelih dan kuliti, dan dijadikan produk daging olahan. (my/qs)
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